Grammar Points

List of the 50 most common English phrasal verbs

http://www.stoakley.org/The%2050%20Most%20Common%20Phrasal%20Verbs,%20B.T.%20Stoakley.pdf

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Use of Passive

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive 

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Simple Present	Active:	Rita	writes	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is written	by Rita.
Simple Past	Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was written	by Rita.
Present Perfect	Active:	Rita	has written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	has been written	by Rita.
Future I	Active:	Rita	will write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will be written	by Rita.

Examples of Passive 

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Present Progressive	Active:	Rita	is writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is being written	by Rita.
Past Progressive	Active:	Rita	was writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was being written	by Rita.
Past Perfect	Active:	Rita	had written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	had been written	by Rita.
Future II	Active:	Rita	will have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will have been written	by Rita.
Conditional I	Active:	Rita	would write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would be written	by Rita.
Conditional II	Active:	Rita	would have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would have been written	by Rita.

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Relative Pronouns

relative pronoun	use	example
who	subject or object pronoun for people	I told you about the woman who lives next door.
which	subject or object pronoun for animals and things	Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?
which	referring to a whole sentence	He couldn’t read which surprised me.
whose	possession for people animals and things	Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?
whom	object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)	I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.
that	subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)	I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.

Relative Adverbs

relative adverb	meaning	use	example
when	in/on which	refers to a time expression	the day when we met him
where	in/at which	refers to a place	the place where we met him
why	for which	refers to a reason	the reason why we met him

What are relative clauses?

A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a noun phrase.
Example:

The man who is smoking is the murderer

The noun the man is modified by the relative clause who is smoking.
Relative clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are talking about.

How to use relative clauses

They are used to provide extra information. This information can either:

• define something (defining clause),
  Example:
  The girl who is standing there is a world champion in karate.
• or provide unnecessary, but interesting information (non-defining clause).
  Example:
  Michael Jackson, who was a famous singer, died of an overdose.

Relative clauses can be introduced by:

1. A relative pronoun: who, whom, which, that, whose.
   
   Example: "The man who is standing there is a famous writer."
   
2. A relative adverb: where, why and when.
   
   Example: " The restaurant where I have dinner is nice."
   
3. None of them.
   
   Example: "The man I met is extremely wealthy"

Relative Pronouns

who - subject or object pronoun for people

They caught the lady who killed her baby.

which - subject or object pronoun

I read the book which is on the table.I visited the town which you told me about.

which - referring to a whole sentence

They were unsuccessful which is disappointing.

whom - used for object pronoun for people, especially in non-restrictive relative clauses (in restrictive relative clauses use who)

The boy whom you told me about got the best grades in mathematics.

that - subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in restrictive relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

I like the vase that is over there.

Relative adverbs

where - referring to a place

The restaurant where I usually have dinner is nice.

when - referring to a time

There are times when I feel so lonely.

why - referring to a reason

This is why she refused the offer.

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?

You can distinguish subject and object pronouns as follows:

• If the relative pronoun is not followed by a noun or pronoun, it is a subject pronoun. Subject relative pronouns can never be omitted (dropped.)
  Example:
  The apple which is lying on the table is sweet.
  The teacher who lives next door is nice.
  
• If the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun, the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object relative pronouns can be omitted (dropped) in restrictive (defining) relative clauses.
  Example:
  The film (which) we watched yesterday was fantastic.
  The writer (who/whom) we met last weekend is very famous.

Restrictive Relative Clauses

1. Restrictive (identifying or defining) relative clauses give detailed necessary information. They are not put between commas.

I know the man who is standing there

2. These clauses are often used in definitions.

A novelist is someone who writes novels.

3. Object pronouns in these clauses can be omitted (dropped.)

Example:
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is from New York.

Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Non- restrictive (non-identifying or non- defining) relative clauses give interesting additional information which is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. These clauses are put between commas.

Example:
Martin Luther king, who was known for his fight for the civil rights, was assassinated in 1968.

Note:
In non restrictive relative clauses:
1. who/which may not be replaced with that.

Example:
Jim, who we met yesterday, is very nice.
NOT
Jim, that we met yesterday, is very nice.

2. Object relative pronouns cannot be dropped.

Example:
Jim, who we met yesterday, is very nice.
NOT
Jim,we met yesterday, is very nice.